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The Journal of Computer Assisted Learning is a , peer-reviewed, journal which covers the whole range of uses of information and communication technology to help learning and exchange. It aims to provide a medium for communication between researchers and the practitioners and to foster collaborative research.

It is a rich source of material for students in areas such as collaborative learning, engineering, open, distance and networked learning, developmental psychology and evaluation. The themes are treated in a way which will maximize their influence on developments and practice in education, vocational training and development. Each volume includes one, sometimes two, Special Issues and these provide readers with an in-depth perspective on a specific topic. First published in 1985, JCAL continues to have the aim of making the outcomes of contemporary examination and experience accessible.

During this period there have been major technological advances offering new opportunities and approaches in the use of a wide range of technologies to learning and transfer more generally. There is currently much emphasis on the use of network functionality and the challenges its appropriate uses pose to teachers/tutors working with students locally and at a distance.

research has demonstrated girls to outperform boys on conventional literacy tests. The present studies concern gender differences on computerised educational tests. Seventy-one children were tested using LASS Secondary and a set of seven conventional measures. No significant gender differences were found on any of the LASS Secondary modules, although females did outperform males on a conventional spelling test. A further 126 pupils were tested on computerised and paper versions of the LASS Secondary reading, spelling and reasoning modules. No gender differences were found on the computerised versions, but there were significant differences on the versions of the reading and spelling modules favouring females. In a third study, 45 children were administered computerised and paper versions of the LASS Junior reading and spelling modules.

There were no significant differences on the computerised modules, but girls performed significantly higher than boys on the document version of the spelling module. It is possible that computerised assessment does not detect the established gender effect due to differences between males and females in motivation, computer experience and competitiveness. Further large-scale studies are necessary to confirm these findings.

This paper examines the evidence for the digital divide based on gender. An overview of examination published in the last 20 years draws to the conclusion that females are at a disadvantage relative to men when learning about computers or learning other material with the aid of computer-assisted software. The evidence shows that the digital divide affects people of all ages and across boundaries. We suggest that the digital divide is fundamentally a problem of computer anxiety whose roots are deep in socialization patterns of boys and girls and that interact with the stereotype of computers as toys for boys.

A model of the digital divide is presented that examines gender stereotypes, attribution patterns, and stereotype threat as antecedents of computer anxiety. Computer anxiety in turn leads to differences in computer attitudes and computer performance. A number of suggestions are offered to reduce the impact of the digital divide.

Abstract Despite huge efforts to position information and communication technology (ICT) as a central tenet of university teaching and learning, the fact remains that many university students and faculty make only limited formal academic use of computer technology. Whilst this is usually attributed to a variety of operational deficits on the of students, faculty, and universities, this considers the wider social relations underpinning the relatively modest use of technology in higher education.

The paper explores how university use of computer technology is shaped into marginalized and curtailed positions by a variety of actors. From the ‘writing’ of ICT at a national policy level through to the marginalization of ICT within the lived ’student experience’, a consistent theme emerges where computer technology use is constructed in limited, linear, and rigid terms far removed from the innovative, productive, and empowering uses which are often celebrated by educational technologists. In the light of such constraints, the document considers how these dominant constructions of a peripheral and limited use of ICT may be challenged by the higher education community. In particular, it concludes by reflecting on current critical thinking about how educational technologists can foster a more expansive and empowered use of computer technology within university settings.

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Educational guides are a very useful medium for delivering flexible deliverance when the topic and circumstances are conducive to it.

According to Bruhn and Guthrie (1994), a Educational Guide is a ’structured booklet designed to direct the learner through a series of learning activities and to a range of resources to achieve specified competencies or learning outcomes”.

A learning guide is not a ‘how to’ manual like manuals that accompany television sets, microwaves and computers etc, but they may be used in conjunction with them. The key focus of educational guides (hereafter ‘guides’) is that they guide users through a structured learning experience. Manuals don’t do that, they simply a number of activities users can follow to get certain outcomes. An example will highlight the difference.
Example:

On one occasion I used guides to cover a half dozen or so small topics that were important, but which did not warrant group training sessions (I redeveloped them as computer based instruction modules delivered online). This was in an organisation that had six offices spread throughout the Northern Territory (Australia), two of which were remote. Costs for training were often high due to the need for travel, therefore, it was desirable to find alternative modes in order to keep costs.
One of the topics my guides covered for example, was titled “Using Delegations” and consisted of only 16 pages.

Note: For those not familiar with delegations, they refer to the acts or omissions a person holding a specific job can do or not do eg, approve leave of absence for a staff member,buy goods and services valued up to $30,000, or terminate an employee’s service. People exercising a delegation are called delegates. If you don’t hold delegation, then you can’t lawfully execute a task.

It was important that delegates knew what they were, or weren’t authorised to do. Non-delegates had to know who had delegation to carry out the tasks required. My short learning guide included the following parts:
A Module Overview setting out the purpose, strategy, learning outcomes, how to achieve the outcomes, resources required, and details about how the topic was to be assessed
Five learning activities
An assessment questionnaire
A summary and review page
An attached answers guide for the intermediate assessment topics (self assessment)

Educational activity one detailed the framework in which delegations exist ie, Constitutional and other legislative matters that allow delegation. There were two activities at the end of Educational Activity One. The first required learners to obtain a copy of an Act of Parliament and study several sections (about delegation). The second required people to read a description, find the section of an Act that related to that description and write in the answers on a blank table. (This was my way of making sure people actually read specific sections).

Learning activities two through five all had a similar process of getting learners to do something followed by a short self-assessment.

Finally, learners were expected to answer 10 “fill in the answer” questions and provide answers for two small case studies involving real life delegations activities.

The former required learners to refer to the organisation’s Delegations Manual and record which delegation (if any) fitted a specific circumstance. When learners completed the assessment questionnaire, they would fax it to the Training Department. One of my people would mark it and feedback about the result.

Each learning activity covered a separate, small part of the whole topic. (People learn in small bits). I provided feedback through self-assessment and faxed assessment. (People need feedback). Topics were logically sequenced. (People need to work from general concepts to specific concepts). Learners used the manuals and legislation that actually applied to them in their everyday jobs. (Adult learners particularly want to learn ‘real’, practical solutions, not deal with fiction).

You’ll understand now how the structure in a educational guide and the use of instructional design principles makes them different from a standard operating manual. One key advantage of educational guides is that you don’t have to incorporate documents that are elsewhere available … all you do is reference them. If they change, it’s not that difficult to update your learning guide.

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Exposed and learning is a way of that focus on releasing learners from constraints of time and place whilst offering flexible education opportunities. For a lot of married and working adults, Open and Detached learning (ODL) is a way of combining work and family responsibilities with educational opportunities.

The first challenge faced by online detached learners is in balancing the combination of work and education. Most of the Open and education students are older, have jobs and families. Job responsibility is already intimidating, let alone the family and the . The task of balancing all of the above responsibility is truly challenging for most of them.

The second issue is in acquiring go online detached study habits. The students’ everyday environment is very distracting for most of the students. Unlike traditional university students who are always in their education community which supports them most of the time, online distance students are not.

Distractions such as friends asking for night supper and wife demanding to go shopping at the mall every weekend are among other distractions faced by students. Acquiring some time in a day to study is quite a hard task to complete.
Online detached learners also have a hard time in being independent and responsible to their own self. Most of the time, there is no one around to monitor the students process. The openness of the online distance program gives students the freedom to do their process whenever they like but most of the time, procrastination is the culprit. Unfocused view of their goals also will make the students act irresponsibly towards their education.

Online distance learners also face problems in recognizing and mastering strengths and skills. In online detached learning, technology is the main conduit which information and communication flow. A computer with internet access is usually needed for this process and its application will need the user to master certain level of acquirement. The students will also need to have some basic writing skills and a go online distance command of English language. Unfortunately, not all of the students possess the above-said skills.

The fifth challenge is in motivating themselves as well as maintaining and increasing self-esteem. In online detached education, learners are usually isolated from peers and tutors. The motivational factors are absent due to lack of contact and competition with other students. The lacks of immediate support of a teacher who is able to motivate will also affects the learners. In the long run, students might feel uneasy with their teacher and uncomfortable with their learning situation and environment.

Online distance learners also face some problems in relating and interacting with peers. Most of the time, learners will learn most effectively when they have the opportunity to interact with other students. Sadly, forming of the study group is not easy. This is caused by the difference in the usage of time between students. One particular student may have some free time for meeting with peers at 10am every Saturday, but another student who works in the government sector may still be at work at the exact time.

The next one is in coping with distance learning strategies apart from printed material package the students are familiar with. There might be audio/video tape material, television-aided education, overhead projectors, computer referencing and computer assisted instruction using the internet.

Some students might feel uncomfortable with these education strategies due to lack of skills and knowledge in using those strategies.

The second last challenge is in preparing for and taking examinations. In order to excel in examination, learners have to start early in understanding the course content and preparing and revising the content. However, not all students do start early in their learning process. Do not have enough time, lazy, too many works to be done are among other reasons given by this type of students in order to avoid studying for exams.

The final challenge faced by online distance learners is in using library facilities to access information and references. Most of the library only opens during office hour and the learners would not be able to go to the library during office hour due to demanding works at the office. This will definitely cause problems to students who want to gain access to the reference material. Library database program such as the OPAC will also require the students to have proper training and skills in order to maximize the usage.

The and learning courses are very different from a traditional classroom setting. Due to a number of challenges and obstacles, it often requires a high degree of commitment on the part of the learner.

In order to overcome these online detached challenges, learners must first plan and manage themselves effectively in order to balancing work, family and study. They have to apply smart time management. Avoiding procrastinating is a must. They must be more responsible and have a focused view towards learning. They must also learn to improve themselves in areas they are lacking (such as writing skills, note taking skills, computer skills and English language skills) because not all skills will be taught by the tutor. They need to motivate their own self by setting achievable goals and have a positive attitude. Due to lack of meeting time with peers, they have to make an effort to interact with peers and tutors frequently.

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When the educational process takes place in an location other than a live classroom, it is known as distance schooling. The idea of distance schooling can be traced by to the advent of the printing press. since the very earliest days of printing, it became possible to develop a learning method whereby the student learned at his own pace and without the aid of an instructor. The self help manual is one of the earliest examples of distance learning.

As each new technological advance was made, the possibilities of its adaptation for distance learning were explored. When radios came into common use, the possibilities of giving instruction via this medium were investigated. Television was a major advance that was used in distance training. The development of closed circuit television networks made it possible for classrooms to be spread out over great distances with the instructor in one location, and the students in another. The drawback to this method was that it still required the student to be actually present at the time the class was being held. It did not free him of that restraint.

It was the introduction of computers, and the wide spread increase of the internet that brought us to the current golden age of distance learning. Online education truly began with the introduction of the “Computer Assisted Learning Center” (CALC) in 1982 in Rindge, New Hampshire. This was the first actual online school in the United States although a similar program was being tested in Norway at around the same time. In was not until 1994-1995 when the internet became more widespread and available to the public from small and local internet service providers that online education really began to explode.

The first stage was the introduction of individual classes online. They were intended to supplement on campus classes and not replace them. There was a bit of reluctance in the educational establishment to change the traditional methods, and this reluctance still exists to some extend. It is fast fading, however, as the advantages of online schooling became apparent. Before long, you could find a complete degree program online. This was followed by online degree colleges. At the present time, online education opportunities increase with each passing day, and the status of online degrees and how they are received by employers is improving constantly as the internet becomes more integrated into daily life.

There was a bit of reluctance in the educational establishment to change the conventional methods, and this reluctance still exists to some extend. It is fast fading, however, as the advantages of online schooling became apparent. Before long, you could find a complete degree programs online. Online degrees are available for many academic fields. This was followed by online degree colleges. At the present time, online education opportunities increase with each passing day, and the status of online degrees and how they are received by employers is improving constantly as the internet becomes more integrated into daily life.

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